2.1 NATIVE AMERICAN
ECOLOGY AND EUROPEAN CONTACT
Pueblos and Spanish
in the American Southwest:
Prehistory to
1700
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2. The Peopling of America
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1. Bering Land Bridge: up to 1000 mi.
wide.
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Glaciers block access to south: 25,000-14,000
B.C.E.
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2. Humans in Alaska by 12,000 B.C.E.
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Access south via Rocky Mountain trench; west
coast.
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3. Humans in present-day U.S. by 9,000
B.C.E.
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New evidence for eastern U.S. by 10,000
B.C.E.
3. Time Line: American Southwest
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Paleo-Indian: 9500 B.C.E. to 6000
B.C.E.
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Hunting of large mammals:
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Clovis Culture. 9500-8500. Long, leaf-shaped
clovis points on atlatls and spears used to hunt mammoth; stone knives
to butcher them. (Clovis, N.M.)
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Folsom Culture. 8500-6000. Fluted points and
stone tools used to hunt surviving bison. Stampeding over cliffs and into
cul-de-sacs. (Folsom, N.M.)
4. Time Line
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Archaic cultures. 6000-2000 B.C.E.
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Small groups of related individuals.
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Hunting-gathering: Foraging of plants and
small mammals along rivers.
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Foraging, moving with seasons. Storage and
cooking pits. Stone and bone chipping, scraping, cutting, and milling of
fibers, roots, tubers, and seeds.
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Small game (birds, rodents) with snares and
nets.
5. Time Line
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Settled Agriculture: 2000 B.C.E. to 500
A.D.
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Diffusion of agriculture northward from
Mexico.
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Soil-based revolution after 500 B.C.E.
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Maize (corn) and squash, later beans, melons,
chili peppers.
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Settled communities, cooperative
labor.
6. Southwest Cultures
7. Hohokam
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Southern Arizona, 300 B.C.E -1500 A.D.
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Desert, irrigated agriculture.
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Canal Builders: 30 ft across; 7 ft deep, 8
mi long; irrigate 8000 acres.
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Salinization forces abandonment of large-scale
works.
8. Chaco Canyon: Anasazi
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Constructed A. D. 900-1150, nw. N.M.
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4 story, 600 room pueblos.
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Ramrod straight 20-30 ft. wide, 50 mile long
highways linking whole area.
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Agricultural calendar.
9. Chaco Canyon: Sun Dagger
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Fajada Butte at Chaco Canyon.
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Solstice and equinox marker.
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Sliver of sunlight between 2 stone
slabs.
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Falls on 2 spiral petroglyphs.
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Planting times; year markers.
10. Gila Cliff Dwellings: Mogollon
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Late 1280s-early 1300s; Mogollon
culture.
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175 ft. above west fork of Gila River in narrow
canyon; 7 natural caves with 42 rooms constructed of Gila stone.
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Corn, beans, and squash grown beside river;
hunting, gathering of wild plants.
11. Mesa Verde: Anasazi
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Pithouses, 500 A.D.;
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Cliffhouses, 1200 A.D.
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Abandoned, ca. 1276 A.D.
12. Acoma Pueblo
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Acoma: Sky City, N.M. (left).
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Enchanted Mesa, home of ancestors
(rear).
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Occupied from 1150 A.D. to present.
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Visited by Coronado in 1540.
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City is 357 ft. above agricultural
plains.
13. Acoma Pueblo Today
14. Corn Mother
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Iatiku: Mother of the corn clan.
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Creator of spirits of the 4 seasons.
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Creator of the katsina--the dead
ancestors.
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Creator of the Chief of the Hunt.
15. Kiva: Sacred Space
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Emergence place:
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Shi pa pu, the earthís navel.
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Circular, like the sky.
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Hole in roof (center).
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Corn and Sun mothers emerge.
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Male space.
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Fire altar on floor.
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Stone, animal fetishes on ledges.
16. Water Serpent
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Horned triangular head, zigzag body.
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Symbol of lightening and rain.
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Sheds skin, hence symbol of renewal.
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Female, symbol of moon, which is also renewed
every 28 days.
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Worshipped by men.
17. Corn Growing
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Women are keepers of corn plots.
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Men work in mothers' plots; brothers in
sisters'.
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Corn fetish: ear of corn containing corn mother's
spirit.
18. Corn Grinding
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Women and girls grind corn into meal on stone
metates with manos; broil and roast fresh corn.
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Men play flute to inspire work.
19. Pictographs and Petroglyphs
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Pictographs made with paint from plants, charcoal,
or blood; blown through mouth.
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Petroglyphs (petro=rock, glyph=carving) made
by pecking rock with tool (antler or hammerstone).
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Petroglyphs may also be pictographs.
20. Petroglyphs
21. Columbus
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Spanish explorations of New World began with
Columbus's voyages in 1492.
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Explorations of Southwest.
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Marcos de Niza, 1539.
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Francisco Vasquez de Coronado,
1540-42.
22. Explorations of the Southwest
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Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado, 1581.
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Explored north to Tiwa Pueblos.
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Friar Augustin Rodriguez and two additional
Franciscan friars were left there.
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Killed by Indians.
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Antonio de Espejo, 1582
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14 soldiers, 1 Franciscan priest, Mexican-Indian
servants.
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Explored Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, Jemez, Zia, Tiwa,
and Keres pueblos.
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Returned via Pecos River to avenge Franciscan
deaths.
23. Don Juan de Onate
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Expedition to San Juan, N.M. to Christianize
and civilize the pueblo Indians, 1598.
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Burned the pueblo and killed and amputated
the feet of Indians in retaliation for resistance.
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1605 signature on El Morro rock, N.M.
24. Missions
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Franciscans established 7 missionary
districts.
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Built churches and chapels.
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Established workshops for weaving, smithing,
leatherwork.
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Created grazing lands and livestock compounds;
gardens and orchards.
25. Effects of Missions on Indians
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Franciscans established Christianity as
religion.
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Raided Indian houses to eradicate prayer sticks,
prayer feathers, and sacred fetishes.
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Obliterated Indian animism.
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Prohibited masks and dances.
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Substituted Virgin Mary for Corn
Mother.
26. Ramon Gutierrez's Thesis
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Colonization, warfare, [and disease] break
down pueblo social cohesion.
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Missionaries substitute Virgin Mary for corn
mother; create new roles for women as caretakers of the missionary and
men as field workers.
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Create settled crop and livestock complex
around the missions.
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New security of food production and
religion.
27. Discussion Questions
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Compare Ramon Gutierrez's approach to those
of week one. Do you agree with his approach? What are its
limitations?
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Pueblo Indians criticized Gutierrez at a meeting
of the Organization of American Historians. On what grounds might they
criticize him? Do you agree?
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